The sea is 95% unexplored, obscure, concealed by human eyes," Fred Gorell, the head of open undertakings at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Ocean Exploration and Research division, tells Mashable in a meeting. "Each time we go off on a campaign, we see something new, or something accepted to be new."

All things considered, there's an exacting universe of wonders left to investigate and clarify. For Gorell, a standout amongst the most famous instances of exactly how obscure the sea is originates from a camera venture around 2004. Named Operation Deep Scope, a group of adventurers set a non-prominent camera on the base of the profound sea off the Gulf of Mexico. In a moment, another disclosure was made.

"This one camera in one spot in under a moment of activity imaged a video of a six-foot squid that had never been seen, not known to exist with us on the planet," Gorell says. " what number different riddles are in the sea?"

It's an apparently perpetual number, particularly when you factor in the inconceivably extreme work of ocean investigation. The sea's breadth requires an enormous number of individuals to cautiously keep watch on submerged cameras. It would take a NOAA traveler an "exceptionally [huge] part of their future life" to consider the pictures rolling in from progressing endeavors, Gorell says evidently. For the not so distant future, your interests about the Bermuda Triangle should go unsolved for the present.


1. The four submarine disappearances of 1968
It was a bad year for submersibles. In 1968, four separate submarines from different countries completely disappeared. There was the USS Scorpion (U.S.), the INS Darak (Israel), the Minerve (France) and the K-129 (Soviet Union). 

2. A cannibal shark in Australia

3. The 'Atlantis of Japan'

4. The Milky Sea Phenomena

5. The Bermuda Triangle

"Mars is the fourth of the nine major planets
of the Sun. The orbits of Mercury, Venus and Earth lie closer to the Sun than its orbit, while those of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto lie outside of it.
"The elliptical orbit of Mars around the Sun is of considerably greater eccentricity than that of the Earth. At perihelion, when Mars most closely approaches the Sun, it is 206 million kilometers away from it; at aphelion, however, the distance is 249 million kilometers. Hence its mean distance is 228 million kilometers. The Earth, whose orbit is nearly circular, has a mean distance of 149V2 million kilometers from the Sun. The Earth's aphelion and perihelion differ from this mean distance by but five million kilometers, roughly.

Martian days and years:
"The orbit of Mars lies in a plane at an angle of 1 degree and 51 minutes of arc to the plane of the ecliptic, which means that Mars and the Earth rotate around the Sun almost in the same plane.
"Mars requires about 687 Earth days for a full revolution around the Sun, and this may be considered as a Martian year.
"Mars rotates around its own axis once in every 24 hours, 37 minutes and 22.7 seconds, making the Martian day only slightly longer than the Earth day, so that the Martian year has 569.6 Martian days.

Seasons of mars:
"The rotational axis of Mars is inclined to the plane of its orbit by 24 degrees, which is very close to the inclination of the Earth's axis to her orbit, namely 23.5 degrees.
This gives Mars seasons like those of the Earth.




Diameter of mars:
"The diameter of Mars at the equator is 6,780 kilometers, while when measured along the polar axis, it is 35 kilometers shorter. This is a little more than half the diameter of Earth.
"The mean density of the planet is only 72% of that of the Earth. Its mass is proven to be approximately one tenth of that of the Earth, within close limits. These figures yield an acceleration due to gravity at the surface of Mars as equivalent to only 38% of that of
the Earth, or 0.38g.

Moons of mars:
"Mars has two very small moons, Phobos and Deimos. Phobos is very close to its
mother planet, its mean distance from the center of Mars being equivalent to only 2.77 radii of Mars. It circles the planet in 7 hours, 39 minutes and 14 seconds, doing so several times a day, somewhat similar to Lunetta circling the Earth. Viewed from the surface of Mars, it would rise in the west and set in the east.
 Its
orbit is noticeably eccentric.Apparently its diameter is but a few kilometers.
"The other moon, Deimos, lies at a distance from Mars of a scant 7 radii of the latter and requires about 30 hours and 18 minutes to encircle it. We estimate its diameter at 10 kilometers and its orbit is circular within close limits."

Atmophere of mars:
 It is well proven that Mars has an atmosphere, although it'sconsiderably less dense than that of the Earth. Once in a while, the formation of clouds has been noted. As to the surface, its formations are very clearly shown, particularly in infrared photography. At times, however, these formations are covered by some sort of
diffuse white or yellow layer which registers particularly on ultraviolet photographs."Such layers must be considered cloud formations, and we take the white ones for water vapor and the yellow ones for sand clouds in all probability, whirled up by powerful storm conditions.
"Clouds containing water vapor must of necessity be present, in order to explain the
regular appearance of snowfalls in the polar regions in Winter, and the occasional
snowfalls in the temperate zones. There's no other possible explanation for regions of hundreds of thousands, or even millions, of square miles being concealed, sometimes in a
very brief period, by a blinding white layer. The borders of the polar snowcaps also are
frequently surrounded by a veil of clouds. We're inclined to interpret this veil as fog banks, developing over regions where snow is beginning to melt, rather than as clouds in
the conventional sense. These fog banks develop in the cold Martian nights. Generally
they are gone by noon."
"A mercury barometer at sea level on Earth reads 760 millimeters where a corresponding one on Mars would read only 64 millimeters, if we've estimated correctly.That's only one twelfth of the terrestrial atmospheric pressure at sea level.""Confound it! That means we'll have to wear pressure suits and employ artificial
respiration on Mars!"
"There's no doubt of it, Colonel. Surface atmospheric pressure will be equivalent to
that at 60,000 feet above the Earth. The pressure is higher at low altitudes because the lower we
descend, the heavier is the column of air above us. Now the acceleration of gravity on Mars is 38% of ours on Earth. So any column of Martian air of equivalent mass would press upon the air below it with only 38% of the weight with which it would do so upon Earth. Consequently increase in density of Martian air with diminishing altitude necessarily takes place more slowly that upon Earth."Putting it another way, we can say that decrease of barometric pressure with increasing altitude takes place more slowly than at home. The atmospheric pressure of the terrestrial atmosphere decreases by a power of ten for every 18 kilometers of altitude; that is to say that ground level pressure is reduced at 18 kilometers altitude to a tenth, at 36 kilometers to one ten thousandth of an atmosphere.But on Mars, the pressure decreases by a power of ten only every 47 kilometers by reason of the weaker field of gravity. So, if we have but a twelfth of our terrestrial pressure at the surface, we shall have one hundred and twentieth of that pressure at 47 kilometers, one
twelve hundredth at 94 kilometers..."

Presence of oxygen:
There's difference of opinion as to the oxygen content; some observers insisting that they have proved that it exists. But if,indeed, oxygen is actually present, the quantity is considerably less than on Earth, even percentage-wise."

"There isn't the slightest doubt that plant life exists, and the botanists consider it well
within the realm of credibility that Martian plants may live within a sort of 'internal
oxygen atmosphere.' A plant applies photosynthesis in order to live, and generates new oxygen in the process, although it does require a certain amount of oxygen for recycling.
If we assume that such a plant can store oxygen within its system, there's no reason why
it cannot do without any free oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere."Now as to animal life, the answer doesn't come quite so easily. Animals, in the ordinary sense of the word, cannot live without oxygen. Nature, however, discovers the most extraordinarily manifold methods of providing animals with oxygen, even on Earth.Fish, for example, attract oxygen from the water through their gills. Monocellular
organisms absorb oxygen through their exterior membranes, just as they do their food.Why shouldn't a Martian animal get its oxygen by eating plants which have stored oxygen
produced by photosynthesis? It would, of course, demand that the lungs be more intimately connected with the digestive organs than are our own...
"Should you think this hypothesis a little far-fetched, there are other plausible
explanations. Take, for example, the condition of symbiosis, which is quite familiar in
natural history. Here animals and plants are able to survive jointly under conditions which
would be fatal to either party alone. Corals, which are fauna rather than flora, are a case in
point. We know that the oxygen content of the water within an extensive bank of coral is
far too low to sustain life in the coral creatures inhabiting it. So Nature simply grows
oxygen-producing algae throughout the coral bank. Thus it's quite reasonable to assume
that Martian animals may live with oxygen-generating plants in some analogous symbiosis.
"We do have animals on Earth which require no oxygen at all to remain alive.
Intestinal parasites, such as tapeworms, are typical of this class. Instead of relying on the
chemical process of oxidation as do most other animals, they use fermentation to obtain
the energy essential for the maintenance of life. Fermentation is the dissociation of sugar
into alcohol and carbon dioxide, which is the process that transforms grape juice into wine
or champagne. Fermentation, like oxidation, generates heat. Intestinal parasites exist
amid a superfluity of sugar. They are beautifully protected against temperature variations
by the bodies of their hosts, so they live extremely contentedly by fermentation without
any oxygen whatsoever.

Water:
The huge zones of vegetation, particularly those in the southern hemisphere seem,or many and various reasons, to have been oceanic basins. The earlier astronomers even named them "Mare" because they thought that they were actually lakes. Today we know that open water bodies of any such size are unimaginable in view of the low atmospheric pressure of Mars - why, they'd evaporate in no time!"What happened to the prehistoric Martian oceans and lakes is in prospect for our own, incidentally. We can follow on Earth the long process of their shrinkage through the various geological ages, and even through the short span of human history. Rome, for example, was a sea-side town when the Republic flourished, but since then the ocean has receded and Rome lies many miles inland. We find fossilized fish in all sorts of places in the mountains and deserts of the southwest states of America. These leave no doubt thatlarge portions of the American continent were under water and only emerged by reason ofthe sinking of the oceans and inland lakes. The Great Salt Lake of Utah is a tiny remnantof the prehistoric Lake Bonneville, and even now its level is dropping at a rate which canbe measured year by year.
"Planetary water loss is irrevocable and pitiless. On one side, the water sinks into the
crevices of the solid crust. These crevices continue to gape open as long as the
incandescent interior is undergoing a cooling process and shrinking. On the other hand,
water evaporates into the air. This process becomes more rapid as the atmosphere is
dissipated and its pressure drops."

For as long as people have walked the Earth, they’ve wondered if there are other
places out there like this one—planets where other beings gaze in awe at the starry
sky.


Now for the first time in human history, we are on the verge of knowing the
answer. Soon, we may find other living worlds. Finding another planet like Earth is tremendously exciting for astronomers, and I hope for you too.

If our star, the Sun, has planets, shouldn’t other stars have planets, too? No one
knew the answer to this question until about the mid 1990s, when the first planets
were found around nearby stars. We call a planet orbiting a star other than the Sun
an “exoplanet.” Today, we’ve discovered over 400 of them, but none resemble the
Earth.

A trickier question is, “where in our galaxy can we find planets like Earth that we
can study for signs of life?”
 Surprisingly, the answer is, “also within the white circle.”
Beyond this, any stars and planets are too far away for us to study closely. Finding
other Earths is one of the most challenging tasks ever to face astronomers. But we
are working hard every day to make it happen.
The most fascinating thing about the hundreds of known exoplanets is their
huge variety. Some stars have a giant planet like Jupiter where the Earth would be.
Other stars have planets like Jupiter 10 times closer to them than Mercury is to our
Sun. Some stars have planets we call “super-Earths,” rocky worlds bigger than Earth
but smaller than Neptune. The list of bizarre planets goes on, and so far we’ve only
scratched the surface. If you can imagine a kind of planet—as long it falls under the laws of physics and chemistry—it’s probably out there, somewhere.

What could aliens see, Earth from a far?

If there is an alien civilization on a planet orbiting one of the 100 or so nearest Sun-
like stars, what could they learn about Earth?
This is a real picture of Earth taken by
the EPOXI spacecraft from more than 30 million miles away. This seems far, but it is
still nearly a million times closer than the nearest star. EPOXI used to be called Deep
Impact (when it dropped a “wrecking ball” into a comet on July 4, 2005). But it was
renamed when I and several other astronomers found a way to use the idle, drifting
spacecraft to study stars with planets and also to observe Earth as if it were an exo-
planet. From EPOXI’s images of Earth, we’ve learned how to estimate whether or
not an exoplanet has things like continents or oceans.
What would it take for an alien civilization in another solar system to take a
picture of Earth similar in quality to EPOXI’s? More than anything else, the aliens
would have to have a lot more money to spend on space telescopes than we Earth-
lings do; taking a picture like this across interstellar distances wouldn’t be cheap. It
would require about fifty telescopes in space all working together, each about half a
football field wide.

When will we find another Earth?

Let’s start with what it would take to find an “Earth twin,” a planet the same size and mass as Earth, with water oceans and an oxygen-rich atmosphere.
Rocky planets that could have surface liquid water are very small and dim com-pared to their large, bright, parent stars. Finding an Earth twin around a Sun-like star is like trying to see a firefly fluttering less than a foot from a huge searchlight—when the searchlight is 2600 miles away. This is the distance from New York to Los Ange-les, or the distance from London to Moscow. With a powerful telescope you might be able to see the firefly’s faint glimmer, but that glimmer becomes imperceptible in the
searchlight’s overpowering glare.
In numbers, Earth is 10 billion times fainter than the Sun at visible wavelengths. To understand this number, think about what you can buy for one dollar. Now think about what you can buy for 10 billion dollars. The problem in observing Earths is not so much the faintness of Earth—it is the glare of the adjacent, 10-billion-times
brighter star.

There are easier ways than direct imaging to find planets similar to Earth—although
finding Earth-like planets will never truly be “easy.”
The good news is that these alternate techniques will discover planets similar to Earth soon, in the next few years. The bad news is that the techniques won’t tell us if the planet is truly
Earth-like—differences between welcoming, life-bearing worlds like Earth and hostile, red-hot worlds like Venus would be indistinguishable. We will ultimately need to get a spectrum, a fingerprint of the planet’s atmosphere, to estimate whether the planet is habitable or inhospitable to life.

Another planet finding technique that might find an Earth-mass planet in the next
few years is the so-called “radial velocity technique.” The radial velocity technique
looks for stars that “wobble” along our line of sight. Such wobbles can be caused by
the gravity of orbiting planets, causing the star to move back and forth. Astronomers
can measure very tiny star wobbles—the same speed as you can walk or run—one
yard per second or less. At present, finding an Earth-mass planet in an Earth-like orbit is just beyond the technological limit of the radial velocity technique. But
astronomers are quietly collecting observations on a handful of very bright stars in
the sky. A momentous discovery could come any day.

Matter and energy content of the Universe control its geometry and expansion.
In the early Universe, the density was dominated by relativistic particles. At a
cosmic time of a second these were photons, neutrinos and electron pairs.


Their
influence on the expansion has become negligible in the present epoch, and now
baryons, non-baryonic “dark matter” and “dark energy” dominate the large-scale
dynamics and geometry of the Universe (Fig. 1). Baryons are the well-known
constituents of ordinary matter. For the existence of the other two components,
we have only indirect, but increasingly compelling evidence.
Although the influence of baryons on the overall dynamics and geometry of the
present Universe is relatively minor, their physical properties are unique.
Among the major forms of matter and energy that populate the present Universe,
only baryonic matter participates in all the physical forces known to us: the
strong forces (transmitted by gluons), the electromagnetic forces (transmitted by
photons), the weak forces (transmitted by the W± and Z0 bosons), and gravity
(transmitted by gravitons). These four physical interactions enable baryons to
self-organize, form a multitude of microscopic and macroscopic structures and,

indeed, create all the variety and beauty that we observe in the World.
The Expanding Universe
When in 1916, Albert Einstein formulated the theory of General Relativity,
space and time became objects of physical enquiry, along with matter and
radiation1
. For the first time this allowed development of scientific cosmologies
that made predictions that could be compared with observations. Thus General
Relativity provides the framework for cosmological models, but matter and
energy content determine which model is valid for our Universe. A variety of
observations made during the last fifty years show that we live in a Universe that
expanded out of an extremely dense and hot phase2
. We depict, in Figure 1, the
matter and energy components prevailing in the cosmos at three selected times.
Not only did the cosmic density decrease by many orders of magnitude duringthe time-span covered by Figure 1, but also the mixture of the matter and
energy components changed drastically.

The abundances in Figures 1a and 1b are quantitatively based on results of
elementary particle physics and established thermodynamic rules. In the present
Universe (Fig. 1c) the density of baryonic matter is well-established. Less well
established are as yet the densities of dark matter and dark energy, but progress
is expected from ongoing and future research.
The Epoch of the Quark-Gluon Plasma
The elementary particles of baryonic matter are quarks. There are six kinds of
quarks and six kinds of antiquarks. The nature of the strong interaction does not
allow quarks to occur in isolation3
, but they can exist as mesons (quark-antiquark
pairs), as baryons (three quarks), and as antibaryons (three antiquarks).
The quark-gluon plasma epoch is the earliest phase of the evolving Universe for
which we can investigate microscopic processes in the laboratory. At that time
the assemblage of quarks, antiquarks, gluons and other elementary particles
behaved somewhat like a liquid. This epoch ended when, at a cosmic time of
~100 microseconds, the expanding and cooling Universe was approaching a
density of 5×1016 kg/m3 (or 50 million tons per cubic centimetre) and a temper￾ature of 1012 K. The quark-gluon plasma became unstable and separated, form￾ing mesons, baryons and antibaryons. Mesons decayed while baryons and
antibaryons annihilated each other, all within microseconds. A very tiny fraction
of the baryons was spared, but this was enough for populating all the galaxies in
the Universe.

Symmetry Breaking in the Very Early Universe
The survival of some baryonic matter at the end of the quark-gluon plasma
epoch remains an unresolved problem of cosmology. An excess of baryons over
antibaryons could result from a difference in the behaviour of matter and anti￾matter. Andrei Sakharov, winner of the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1975, has
listed observations that could account for the excess of baryons. The violation
of the time-reversal invariance, found in the decay of neutral K-mesons is an
example. A necessary condition is that protons should decay, however slowly,
into mesons. No such proton instability has been found so far, but experiments
revealed that the lifetime of the proton far exceeds the age of the Universe. This
ascertains that even on a cosmic time scale the number of baryons will not
decrease by spontaneous decay.
Baryon-antibaryon annihilation is a strong interaction process. Therefore, in a
homogenous Universe only a totally insignificant amount of antibaryons should
have left the Big Bang. Indeed, even though the identification of primordial anti￾matter is complicated by interactions of cosmic rays with matter that produce
proton-antiproton pairs, experiments as well as observations have not given any
indication of the presence of primordial antibaryons. In fact, the fraction of
antiprotons found in cosmic rays is fully compatible with such a secondary ori￾gin.
Primordial Nucleosynthesis (0.1 s to 3 min in cosmic time)
During the epoch of primordial nucleosynthesis, lasting from ~100 milliseconds
to ~3 minutes in cosmic time, the physics is well-known, so that we can make
quantitative predictions for microscopic and macroscopic processes.
R.V. Wagoner, W.A. Fowler and F. Hoyle4 formulated the theory of Standard Big
Bang Nucleosynthesis (SBBN) in 1967. Based on Einstein’s General Relativity,
SBBN assumes a homogeneous and isotropic Universe during the epoch of
nucleosynthesis, and neglects degeneracies of leptons. When, with the LEP col￾lider at CERN, it was shown that there exist three neutrino flavours (Nν = 3), this
was included in the SBBN theory. Recent results of neutrino oscillation experi￾ments assure us that the rest masses of all these neutrinos are very low, low
enough to be negligible during the nucleosynthesis epoch. Thus, the baryonic
density remains the only important free parameter in the SBBN theory.
The sequence of events during the epoch of primordial nucleosynthesis is as fol￾lows: At a cosmic age of 10 milliseconds, the temperature had decreased to
1011 K. Mesons and heavier leptons had virtually all decayed, and only protons and
neutrons, the lightest variety of baryons, remained. As a result, energy
density and expansion rate were completely dominated by relativistic particles,
i.e. photons, neutrinos and electrons5
, with protons and neutrons being only
minor constituents (Fig. 1a). Since neutrons are heavier than protons, the
neutron/proton ratio decreased with decreasing temperature through the weak
interaction until, at a cosmic time of ~1 second and a temperature of ~1010 K, the
weak interaction became ineffective, and the neutron/proton ratio was frozen-in
at a value of one fifth. Afterwards, beta decay of the neutrons slowly decreased
this ratio further until all neutrons were bound in stable nuclei.
Nucleosynthesis, i.e. the fusion of protons and neutrons into deuterium and
heavier nuclei, effectively began when the temperature had decreased to
109 K at a cosmic time of ~100 seconds, and it was completed 200 seconds later.
Since all the nuclei of atomic mass A = 5 and A = 8 are extremely short-lived,
the production could not go beyond the isotopes of the lightest three
elements (Fig. 2). Of these, only deuterium (D or 2
H), the heavy isotope of
56
Figure 2. Origin of nuclei6
. Because all
nuclei having an atomic mass 5 or 8 are
extremely short lived, the nucleosynthe￾sis in the early Universe is limited to the
lightest three elements. All nuclei with
atomic mass A above 11 are produced in
stars. For species with mixed origin,
such as 7
Li, the relative proportions
change with time and location hydrogen, was created exclusively (>99%) during the first few minutes in the
life of the Universe.
The Universal Density of Baryonic Matter
The predicted Big Bang production of the isotopes of hydrogen and helium is
shown in Figure 3. 1
H and 4
He represent more than 99.9% of the total mass.
D and 3
He are rare and, as Figure 3 shows, their yields depend inversely on bary￾onic density. This is analogous to chemical reactions, where the yields of inter￾mediate products decrease with increasing supply of reacting partners. Since the
early 1970s, deuterium abundance measurements in the solar wind, meteorites,
Jupiter and the Galactic interstellar gas were used to derive the primordial abun￾dance of deuterium. Values of D/H in the range 3-5 × 10-5 were obtained from
which a universal baryonic density of
3-6 × 10-28 kg/m3 was calculated7
, cor￾responding to about 0.2 atoms per
cubic metre. A general consensus
existed on these values7 until, in 1994,
deuterium was measured by absorp￾tion of radiation from distant quasars
in intervening clouds of gas. Since the
investigated clouds are extremely old
and virtually free of heavier elements
(i.e. they have nearly “zero metallici￾ty”), their deuterium abundance
should be close to primordial. The
problem was that widely varying D/H
ratios were reported, ranging from
3×10-5 to 2×10-4. These results
reopened a broad discussion not only
on the usefulness of galactic data for
deriving primordial abundances, but
also on the reliability of the SBBN the￾ory for calculating the universal bary￾onic density.
This was the situation when in May 1997 ISSI convened the workshop on
“Primordial Nuclei and their Galactic Evolution”8
. It became clear at this
workshop that the low D/H ratios in distant clouds reported by D. Tytler and associates9
, and not the high values found by other authors, could be reconciled
with the 3
He and deuterium abundances in the Solar System and the present-day
Galaxy.
The 3
He and deuterium abundances11,12 in the Protosolar Cloud and the Local
Interstellar Cloud (Figs. 4 and 5) demonstrated that the principal effect of stellar
processing is the conversion of deuterium into 3
He with the sum, D+3
He remain￾ing nearly constant13 (Fig. 6). This was supported by new theoretical work14
showing that 3
He from incomplete hydrogen burning does not have a large effect
on the chemical evolution in the Galaxy.
The best current estimates of the primordial D/H and (D+3
He)/H ratios are com￾pared in Figure 3 with the theoretically predicted values. It is evident that both ratios give a universal baryon/photon ratio of (5.8±0.6)×10-10 and a present-day universal density of baryonic matter of σB = (4.1±0.4)×10-31 g/cm3 or about0.2 atoms per cubic metre. The baryon/photon ratio is one of the fundamentalnumbers of cosmology. So far, it is known only empirically. Any theory aboutthe earliest phases of the Big Bang will have to predict a value that is compati￾ble with the number derived from deuterium and 3
He.
Since the sum of D and 3He is nearly independent of galactic evolution, the
primordial baryonic density can be derived from this sum with little, if any,
extrapolation. As Figure 6 shows, (D+3
He)/H in the two galactic samples and in
the distant low-metallicity clouds are nearly the same. Thus, at the time of
primordial nucleosynthesis, the baryonic densities in the far-away regions of
these clouds and in our part of the Universe were the same, which is evidence
for a homogenous Universe at the time of primordial nucleosynthesis.
Deuterium as a Tracer of Natural Processes
From that time on, deuterium in the Universe has been continuously decreasing,
as stars are destroying, but not producing it. This “one-way” behaviour makes
deuterium a unique tracer for physical and chemical processes in nature16,17.
Deuterium in our bodies is authentic Big Bang stuff. Its relatively high abun￾dance of 2-3 grams in each of us is due to chemical enrichment in the cold
molecular cloud from which the Solar System formed16,18.
How Much Helium from the Big Bang, How Much from Stars?
The primordial abundance of 4
He is best obtained by extrapolating the helium
abundance measured in H II regions to “zero metallicity”, i.e. to vanishing O/H
or N/H ratios. For many years, several authors using this method consistently
derived a primordial helium mass fraction near 23%. Then, at the 1997 ISSI
workshop, Trinh Xuan Thuan and Yuri Izotov reported on their observations of
H II regions in blue dwarf galaxies (Fig. 7), and showed that the primordial mass
fraction had to be increased to 24.5%19, a value that has since been adopted. This
may seem like a small change but, as the following discussion will show, it is
significant for analyzing the physical processes in the early Universe.
The Big Bang production of 4
He depends only weakly on the baryonic density
(Fig. 3). Thus, by using the baryon/photon ratio as determined above, 4
He can be
used for testing the validity of the SBBN theory, or, to express it more general￾ly, the validity of the laws of physics under the extreme conditions that were
prevalent in the early Universe.

Stellar Production of Carbon and Heavier Elements
The gap in the sequence of stable nuclei at atomic masses 5 and 8 is
overcome by the 3-alpha nuclear reaction, producing 12C, the major isotope of
carbon20. Since this reaction involves three partners, a high density is required
for it to become effective. This condition is only fulfilled when stars have
evolved into red giants, with high enough central densities and with tempera￾tures of ~100 million degrees. Once 12C is present in a star, the synthesis con￾tinues to heavier elements as the star contracts further and increases its core tem￾perature.

The fusion of lighter nuclei into heavier ones continues up to the group
of elements around iron, which possesses the minimum free energy. Elements
beyond the iron group are produced by slow neutron capture in red giants, and
by the “r-process”, an extremely rapid capture of neutrons during super novae
explosions. The relative proportion of thorium, uranium and plutonium isotopes
in the Solar System proves that “r-process” synthesis was not restricted to some
violent early epoch, but has been going on throughout galactic history21.
Dark Matter....
In 1937 Fritz Zwicky discovered that the visible mass of the galaxies in the Coma
Cluster (Fig. 8: left) and other such clusters was far from sufficient to keep them
gravitationally bound, and he concluded that these clusters were held together by
a surplus of “dark matter” that astronomers could not readily account for.
During the last decades of the 20th century, it became increasingly clear that the
Universe harbours more gravitational attraction than could possibly be account￾ed for by the 0.2 atoms/m3 of matter that was derived from D and 3
He abundances At the ISSI workshop on “Matter in the Universe” held in March 2001, astronomi￾cal observations at various wavelengths including gamma-rays, and X-rays were
presented, along with results from gravitational lensing25. They all showed that non￾baryonic matter contributes most of the gravitational forces on the scale of clusters of
galaxies and even galaxies22, 26. Indeed, these clusters would fly apart, and galaxies -
including our own - would tend to disintegrate without the presence of an unknown
form of matter (Figs. 8: right and 9). The fluctuations in the Cosmic Microwave
Background (CMB) radiation demonstrated on a cosmic scale that, in addition to
baryonic matter, a non-baryonic form of matter must have come out of the Big Bang27.
....and Dark Energy
In recent years, observations of type IA supernovae explosions indicated that the
expansion of the Universe has been speeding-up during the past several billion
years.
 This effect is attributed to a “dark energy” with an equation of state that
combines positive energy with negative pressure28-30. In a medium with negative
pressure (p), the energy density (ε) decreases less rapidly, because the medium receives, but does not expend work. When p/ε is below –1/3, the negative pres￾sure overcomes the gravitational attraction, accelerating the expansion31.
In the years following the 2001 ISSI workshop, new and refined measurements
have firmed up the above conclusions30, 32, without fundamentally changing those
presented at the workshop25,26,33,34. Particularly, the CMB observations obtained
with the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP, Fig. 10) confirmed
the earlier results and improved quantitative predictions35.
The relative proportions of the major forms of energy in the Universe are shown
in Figure 1c. The share of baryonic matter is modest, but its density as derived
from deuterium and 3
He is very robust. If, for example, all the dark matter were
baryonic, the abundance of deuterium would be 80 times lower, and neither the
D absorption lines in Figure 4, nor the 3
He peak in Figure 5 would be noticeable.
Whereas dark and baryonic matter decelerate the expansion of the Universe, dark
energy tends to accelerate it 31. Since the densities of dark matter and baryonic
matter decrease more quickly than the density of dark energy, deceleration of the
expanding Universe turned into acceleration several billion years ago, and so it
will continue to expand into the distant future. That is our present understanding.

Building Cosmic Structure
Dark matter, not being affected by electromagnetic interactions, decoupled from
the photon gas very early and initiated the growth of cosmic structure long
before baryons could have done this. When at a cosmic time greater than
100,000 years baryons decoupled from photons, the baryons were drawn into
already existing blobs of dark matter and began to form the structures we observe. In places of strong enough con￾centration, baryonic matter, contracting
under its own weight, formed stars that
then produced carbon and heavier ele￾ments, essential ingredients of complex
molecules and crystals. These highly
organized systems of baryonic matter are
the crucial building blocks of comets,
solid planets and life.
The Nature of Dark Matter
The particles of dark matter have not yet been identified. Weakly Interacting
Massive Particles (WIMPs), but also virtually non-interacting light particles
(axions), are being considered. Experiments to detect WIMPs produced by
accelerators or natural WIMPs are underway (Fig. 11). Such measurements
could provide information on the mass and interaction properties of the dark￾matter particles and on their temperature in the solar neighbourhood. These
properties of the dark matter allow predictions regarding the evolution of medi￾um-scale structures, such as the number of dwarf galaxies in relation to fully
grown galaxies, the amount of baryonic matter falling quasi-continuously into
our own Galaxy, or the concentration of matter towards the centre of galaxies
and clusters. Such predictions are important for comparison with observations.
The direct detection of dark-matter particles is, in principle, made easier by its
concentration in the galactic potential well. For the neighbourhood of the Sun,
an energy density of 0.3 GeV/cm3 of dark matter is derived from the width and
depth of this well33. This corresponds to 580 grams of dark matter for the whole
volume of Earth. Comparison with the mass of the Earth of 6×1024 kilograms
shows just how much more locally concentrated and structured baryonic matter
is in the Universe, a direct consequence of the strong and electromagnetic forces.

Asghardiya is derived from the word 'asgard'. Many of us have already heard about Asgard through the famous Marvel series. According to the Norse mythology, Asgard is a world in space where only the gods live. Asgardia project is taken from the imagination of the world. In 2016, the space agency Asgardia was founded by Russian computer engineer Igor Ashurbeli.


Although Asgardia emerged as the sole leader of Asgardia, Asgardians elected him as the President on 25 June last year at a glittering ceremony in the Huffberg Palace in Vienna. Asgardia's current registered number of more than 200,000 people who are gradually growing up after the establishment. This state has its own national music and constitution.
President Ashurbayli is a personality surrounded by a mystery. In his personal life he is known as a millionaire. But specific information about the amount of his assets is not available. Izhar Ashurbayli, a descendant of Azerbaijan family named Ashurbekev, has made his place in business and space industry with his own efforts. Earlier, he was involved in arms production business. This wonderful state Asgardia has established itself to implement its own thinking and not to stop here.

Asgardia's Principles

Asgardia is basically founded on three targets: ensuring the peaceful use of space, keeping the earth safe from space disasters, and creating an open environment for space and science without space. Apart from these three targets, Asgardia has been working on the mission to build a living environment and bases for the moon. Asgardians believe that it will be possible to conduct a deeper operation of the space by establishing a legal legal framework in the world's only satellite. Human civilization can progress faster by speeding up faster and faster.


Asgardia's official website, it has been announced that this future city has been presented with the release message for all who are bound to the geographical boundaries of the world.
Asgardia's first satellite launch was launched in space in 2017. This satellite carrying a set of important information about Asgardia and the important principles of the Constitution is being circulated around the world. In the next two years, they plan to launch more satellites. In a word, a utopian is imagining the survival of the world, the Asgardians

Government of Asgardia and the Constitution

A Parliament is also formed according to the Legend of the Fictional Asvagardi. This parliament, comprising about 146 members, is working for the purpose of implementing Asgardia's main goal. Asgardia's constitutional name is 'Kingdom of Asgardia'. But in the name of the Kingdom, Asgardia is largely a democratic government system. The Constitution made by the Asgardia government is very unrealistic in relation to the current context. There are a few notable pieces from the Constitution composed of about nine thousand words-

Asgardia values ​​carry peace message in space and ensure peaceful settlement in the world.
Asgardia all the citizens are equal. There will be no discrimination between the world's birthplace, residence, citizenship, color, nationality, gender, religion, language, financial status and history.
Asgardia will be known as the greatest nation in the world of science and technology.
No repression repression will be tolerated because of the expression. But Asgardians will refrain from publishing provocative comments that may cause violence in the custody of Asgardia.
The government will take certain policies to ensure information security.
Besides, Asgardia's President has the full right to declare his successor in his power. Even the President's decision will be considered final in the appointment of the Chief Justice and other legal officials of the state. At the first session in Vienna on June 24, 2014, a total of 100 members from 40 countries were present.

All the people get the opportunity to present their speech once in the 11-hour long session, in an 8-hour drive while binding. Even 20 major issues have been voted or voted! Asghardian's enthusiasm, many have been on the forehead. It is also being seen as another ridiculous organization, like the Flat Earth Society, many think.
Providing citizenshipcitizenship:

To get Asgardia's citizenship, you will first have to read the Asgardia Constitutional book. Then, if you express solidarity with this constitution, then you will be nominated for Asgardia's citizenship. Just a few minutes on the run to get a nation's citizenship, nobody will be able to take Asgardia back. Before giving citizenship you will be asked a number of personal questions in a form. After forming your name, address, educational qualification and contact address, you will be accepted as a citizen. But here everything is not finished. The new citizen has to face a short IQ test on his first day.
 Is Asgardia fake?

There is a dispute over how practical Asghardia utopia is. But Asgardia's whole project is fake, it is also demanding. The main reason behind such claims is that many people have been identified as average intelligence after the IQ test. Later, they were instructed to take part in a special project, which assured them that their intelligence related problems would be solved. And the trouble started here.

Many people think that business is going through a special purpose, Igor Ashurbaili. On a website called Stop Fake, a group of Ukrainian journalists has raised several accusations against it. Notably, Asghardia government forced its citizens to buy shares in specific stock companies. To many it is a conspiracy of the Russian government. But these allegations can not be proved to anyone, so far survivor Asgardia has survived.
In his inaugural speech President Igor Ashurbayli termed Asgardia as the real form of humanity's finest future. To him, Asgardia will be the peaceful pastures of Heaven, where there will be no hatred. There will be only joy Although sounds pretty rousing, the reality is far away. It can not be said exactly how far Asghardia goes. But in the near future people will form a new state of space in the space, it is not unusual.

City Shichang:lost Atlantis of china

How many modern cities of this world, how old civilization has lost its cave, there is no statistic.









City Shichang

At present, the archaeologists are searching for cities of commemoration of those civilizations. Because of their constant effort, many lost cities have been discovered and being They have found many cities, many unknown history of ancient civilization are all open. From the researchers all the ordinary people show those signs as romantically thrilled. The architectural architecture of the time, the city planning image, the people's thinking and the strategic skills of science are all amazed.


Recently a group of archaeologists have found the existence of a city that has once been submerged under water. The name of the city is Shichang. This ancient city of China was once known as 'Lion City'.


Tourists also mark the city as Pub Atlantis. Many of the ancient cities of this city remain untouched today. At that time, there may be any damage due to punk roads, houses, monuments and temples submerged under the water. There is a lot of water behind this city. According to someone, the city plan was wrong because, according to someone, the city was drowned. Though the opinion is different, scientists are certain that people have been destroyed due to indiscriminate planning.

The city of Sichang has been developed

Sichang, a very ancient city situated in the foothills of Wu Hill (Five Lion Mountain) in Xizhong province of China. Distance from Shanghai to this city is 400 km The city is about 1300 years old. The city was established during the reign of Han dynasty from 25 to 200 AD. At that time the city's different structures were built. The city seems to be almost equal to about 62 football fields in the minds of archaeologists. The city's highway and the building, the great monuments and temples are a great example of the city civilization of that era. Later, the city is known as the eastern social, political and economic center of Jijiang province.
Immerse yourself in the water under the water

There are different ideas about how exactly the city could lose under water. However, according to most experts, the Chinese government is responsible for it's shocking plan. In 1959, the Attenborough Chinese government decided to build a hydroelectric project along with the Jinan Dam alongside the Shikeng city. For the implementation of the project, arrangements have been made to move three lakh people out of the embankment.

Apart from this, many people of the town lived in Shichang town for many centuries for families. Then the dam for the project is constructed. An artificial valley built to prevent dam water, Koundo And due to this Kainanda Lake, the whole city will be gradually swirled. And along with the old samples of urban civilization can be watered together.

The lost city is newly discovered

The Chinese people lost under the water, even the Chinese government, were making a mistake about the city. In order to know what the Chinese city is located in the 2001 Chinese city of Kyiv, the government has decided to take a team of archaeological inquiries into the Kyando Lake. As a result, the memories of the lost city are returned to the people of the lost city. Thus, the city lost in 2001 under water was re-discovered.
This investigative team found that more than 50 years have passed, the Siching city is almost inaccessible. The city's buildings, temples or other structures have been damaged. Due to the water sinking down, the city has been protected from various types of natural degradation due to air, rain, sun etc. The beauty of the city is still unrestrained.


Learn to still have characters around down the Kyando Lake; Image Source: Stevenbaker Dr.
In 2011, some pictures of China's National Geographic were published in the Shikeng city. As a result, the people who are searching for them think that the huge city of half a square kilometer area has become very interesting. A few days ago a group of divers visited the place that most of the city's wooden structure and design is very dirty. Structures are also very strong.

Bricks built with wooden stairs, the row rows are still the same as before. It does not fall into the chassis layer. The National Geographic's film shows the city's five entrances. Two entrances are located on the western side and the other gateway to the north, south and east of the city. The streets of the city were quite spacious. From the main road to the city streets there were 265 large-sized arcades.
Among the stone-made arches, various mythological figures such as lion, dragon and phoenix are found in the statue. Many archway inscriptions are still present. It is seen, many of these arches are old in 1777 AD. These inscriptions are also known to have been built in the sixteenth century as the city walls were built.

The tourism industry is developing a lost city center

Currently, the Shivek Nagar Kendra has been established in the Kyondo Lake and it has developed tourist center. China's dive institutions such as Big Blue and Gao Diving Club are using the city as tourist spots. Using a modern technology, there is a way of trying to go to the city.
They are willing to diving with the help of divers engaged in diving clubs, they show tourists to the ancient Shikshan city

Today, about 10 thousand years ago, people planted plants and animals in their own homes as people have their own needs, such as comfortable living arrangements, food assurance, help from animals and companions. Animal domestication started in Mesopotamia At the time, animal pots were largely adopted for meat, milk, skin and skin. They used to make tents for the protection of the shame and shelter from the skin of animals.
People initially treat small animals as pets. For example, the dog has been groomed for help in hunting. Later on, people were looking at the larger animals. Then they started adopting cows, horses, etc. for the cultivation and transportation.

Since ancient times, people have been using animals for different purposes. Even the use of animals in the war zone was not dropped. And the animals are also doing a commendable contribution in different wars. The use of animals in World War I was astonishing. In today's text we will know about the contribution of animals used in World War I.

Horses and donkeys:
Horse has been used in most of the major battles that took place in the world. In addition to horses, donkeys have also been used in many battles. The donkey was used to transport guns, ammunition, battlefield arms and supplies. Apart from these activities, the horse had to do a little more work. Horse soldiers used to transport. Besides, there were cavalcade forces in the battlefield.

Horse was also used in the First World War. Over 1,36,000 Australian horses were employed in this war. Most of these horses were very skillful in the battlefield. Although peace was declared to the people after the war, cruel fate came to the horse's life. 13 thousand horses were not taken back to the country considering ship crises, transport costs and quarantine to bring the horses back to their homeland.

Pigeon:
Since the beginning of creation, the importance of communication was immense. That is why people used different ways to communicate for ages. The communication system was not so modern 3,000 years ago. At that time people started using the first pigeon for information exchange.

pigeon was used in the first world war for information exchange. Letters were sent to Kabutar because it was able to fly high and had the ability to return to his own dome. For this, the house of pigeon was made at the headquarters of the army. Then the pigeons were taken to various places in Europe with soldiers or with a vehicle. Then, with the necessary information, he would return to the headquarters of the army headquarters.

Dog:
The most anchored creature ever found is the dog. This creature is always ready to give life to follow the instructions of the master.

In the first world war, there was a parable of dog lord.
The dog was very skilled in giving the appearance of the enemy in the trench. Even if they were sitting on top of the trench, without knowing the presence of the nearest enemy, they would have been warned inside the trench, without being barking. The dog was appointed as guardian for the prudence of prudence, hearing and smell. In addition to finding the position of the injured soldier, ammunition identification and arsenic transport, the dog was also done.

Before sending the dog to the battlefield, he was trained in the Hampshire. In the First World War, 20,000 trained dogs were sent. Among them, 7,000 people were home-domesticated dogs. The rest were taken from the training and police forces.

Leonardo DiCaprio, one of the most popular and talented actors of the current world, was finally able to pick up the award in 2016 after being nominated for the Oscars four times. He was rewarded for his role in 'The Revant'. The film was screened in Canada and Argentina's hostile environment. It was so hostile to the atmosphere that some of the crew called it 'hell'. In the film 'The Revant', the experience of acting, career and life has come up in the Dikaprio's interview. Part of the conversation that remains for the readers.

In a scene of 'The Revant' movie you have to eat raw liver while hungry. To illustrate the scene, did you really eat raw lizard?

Yeah, got eaten. Because they were the first artificial lizards that I first gave, it seemed to be artificial. So the real liver had to use. I had to eat a couple of times to catch the scene. The expression I have seen on the screen while eating is absolutely authentic. I did not have to play any role
It seems that the movie was quite difficult. If you are asked to rate a 10-scale scale, then how will you pay attention to the idea of ​​'The Revant'?

Ten to ten. Before we went to work, we all knew what we were going to do. It was not possible to work using CGI. So there was to work in the bari outdoor location.

Which part of the film has to suffer the most?

Vasanti was in full shooting. The coldest of all are cold. I took a special machine with me, looking like a big hairdryer. There were eight turtles in it. So I named it 'The Octopus'. I used to heat my body with that shot.

Are you introvert or extrovert in personal life?

Of course, outgoing. I love nature Where ever some people do not want to go to the primitive place where they have not feet. If there is a place like Amazon, there is a near near monastic experience, where there is no human civilization within a few thousand miles.

You have survived for a short time while traveling. Sharks in South Africa attacked you. Before that, the parachute was not accidental when he was in the accident. How did you feel at those moments? What was going on in the mind?

It's weird Because something very special or dramatic did not come to mind. Just seemed to think so: Dhyaat, why should this happen today? I'm young, I have a nice life in front of me, it is very bad. In fact, no other deep thoughts or emotions work without saving life.

On April 3, 1973, Martin Cooper, a researcher from the Motorola company, invented the first cellphone. His discovery creates a revolution in the communication system. That's the start of the wireless telephone communication system, since then mobile phone technology has started to improve day by day.
It is now a situation that it is difficult to find anyone other than a mobile phone. So far, many mobile phones have come up, many mobile phone companies have come. However, since the birth of the mobile phone, some phones have been created which are welcomed by the whole world. Let's see, nine popular mobile phones that got the same popularity in the world.

Motorola RAZR V3, Total sold: 130 million:

Motorola RAZR V3